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<p>Following Wilhelm Conrad R&ouml;ntgen's discovery of X-rays in 1895, Hermann Rieder recorded the influence of X-rays on the bacterial activity of Vibrio cholerae in 1898. This was the same year that Marie and Pierre Curie discovered several radioactive elements, including polonium and radium. These discoveries advanced research in the field of sterilization using radiation, leading to the introduction of electron beam sterilization for medical products on a commercial basis by Ethicon, Inc., a Johnson and Johnson affiliate, in 1956. Subsequently, the first gamma (&gamma;) sterilization facility for plastic medical products was installed in the United Kingdom in 1960. It took more than 60 years from R&ouml;ntgen's discovery of X-rays for radiation sterilization to advance to the point where it is used on an industrial scale. The commercial application of gamma radiation for sterilization began in 1964 by Johnson and Johnson. Further advancements followed in the field of radiation sterilization, utilizing gamma, electron beams, X-rays, ultraviolet (UV) light, and microwave-assisted pasteurization processes.</p>
<p>Despite a decrease in public acceptance of radiation-based processes over the years due to safety concerns regarding ionizing radiation and increased public awareness, many conventional and advanced sterilization technologies are still based on it. Complete phasing out of gamma irradiation comes with potential consequences, as evidenced by a very recent study published in 2018. In general, radiation sterilization can be applied to products before packaging, such as dairy products, or after packaging, such as meat.</p>
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<h2>2.1 Gamma Rays</h2>
<p>Gamma radiation, an ionizing form of radiation, has become a well-established method for sterilizing single-use pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic products. It is known for its ease of use and its compatibility with various packaging materials. The sterilization process involves exposing a product or package to a radioactive substance that emits high-energy photons. This interaction with microorganism molecules leads to the destruction of cellular nucleic acid, DNA strand breakage, and inhibition of protein synthesis. The dissociation of DNA molecules from high-energy radiation further combines with the formation of free radicals by irradiating water and other organic molecules. Furthermore, gamma radiation reduces endotoxin levels.</p>
<p>Cobalt-60, followed by cesium-137, are the most commonly used radioactive nuclides for gamma radiation sterilization. Cobalt-60 is industrially produced through neutron irradiation in a nuclear reactor, subsequently undergoing beta decay with a double-gamma decay of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV photon energy. Gamma radiation occurs at ambient temperature and demonstrates superior penetration depth compared to other radiation-based sterilization processes. However, one drawback involves the requirement of a large technical facility with significant capital investment. Additionally, there is a risk of degradation of certain polymer-based packaging materials if the sterilization process is not properly calibrated for the specific material in use. These issues necessitate adherence to recommended packaging materials and radiation dosages as outlined in FDA 21 CFR 179.45. Another potential side effect includes the release of volatile chemicals affecting the product's organoleptic properties and shelf-life.</p>
<h2>2.2 Electron Beams</h2>
<p>Electron beam sterilization uses accelerated electrons to deactivate surface microorganisms. A particle accelerator releases these high-energy e-beams, which interact with the targeted surface to generate ions and reactive radicals. E-beams have lower penetration depth than gamma or X-rays radiation. They are extensively employed for surface sterilization of packages in the food and beverage industry, albeit with high maintenance, operational costs, and ozone formation around the sterilization system.</p>
<h2>2.3 X-Rays</h2>
<p>X-rays, falling within a specific wavelength range, are generated using an X-ray tube consisting of a heated filament cathode and a high atomic weight metal target anode. Tungsten, tantalum, and gold are common targets used to produce X-rays, each with its own characteristics and regulations. Unlike gamma radiation, X-rays are unidirectional, offering a good alternative with antimicrobial properties similar to both e-beams and gamma radiation, along with a higher penetration depth than e-beams. However, they have a low production yield, although efficiency increases with higher incident electron kinetic energy and target atomic number.</p>
<p>The nature of the e-beam source means that X-rays can be supplied on-demand, making them favorable for sterilization facilities and operators. Nonetheless, it's important to note the low yield of X-ray production despite increased production efficiency with specific conditions.</p>

Radiation Sterilization Introduce

Publish Time：2023-12-01